Jerzy Bański

Abstract

Inequalities and disparities across space are the result of an unequal distribution of resources and income in and between specific areas. It is primarily on the quality and abundance of internal resources and the level of economic use made of them that regional and local development depends. Resources constitute the competitive advantage regions enjoy and are largely responsible for determining their specialisation and economic functions. It is widely assumed that the activation of a region’s internal potential has a positive effect on the living conditions of its residents and allows for the most-effective use of resources in support of regional development. Such an assumption is guided by the theoretical concepts of territorial capital (Camagni, 2008), endogenous capabilities (Scott and Storper, 2003) or local conditions and local networking (Fujita et al., 1999).

The root cause of spatial inequality appears to lie in natural resources (even if this the more-general geographical location, or the more-specific presence of raw materials, or environmental conditions). These are deemed to have shaped settlement, migration flows, the development of infrastructure in regions, and their economic specialisation.

The result of the outworking of all these processes and phenomena is for areas of differentiated socio-economic development to have developed. As an example, the countries of the European Union suffer from pronounced socioeconomic disparities between regions (Petrakos et al., 2005; Psycharis et al., 2020), even as it is worth noting that, while inequalities between countries are decreasing gradually, inter-regional disparities within countries are actually increasing (Perrons, 2012; Kemenyi Storper, 2020). Very pronounced manifestations concern urban versus rural areas, as it is particularly in agglomeration areas that the labour market, public infrastructure, the services and manufacturing sectors are all concentrated, with the result being a shaping of decidedly-higher wages and levels of wellbeing defined broadly, as compared with rural areas.

Associated with the disparities is the concept of the area (or region) lagging behind, and thus being deemed problematic, depressed, peripheral, handicapped, etc. The connotations of these terms are such as to denote territories characterised by certain phenomena and processes that are negative, and indeed more negative than in other areas. Given that consistent negativity, this study has treated the different concepts as if they were synonyms, given that what counts is that the territories in question represent negative values on the axis of spatial inequality.

In recent years, increasing scientific attention has been focused on the social and political consequences of spatial inequalities, which have gained repeat description in the context of a threat being posed to social cohesion and potentially entailing political breakdown, even as injustice and marginalisation are present. Social discontent is then reflected in the rise of populist and contesting parties that target the establishment.

And so to the core purpose of the work described here, which has sought to determine the consequences of spatial inequality (disparities) as manifested in the political sphere. To that end, this paper begins with a characterisation of the way in which research approaches to problem areas and social discontent have evolved. That then leads into the analysis of voter preferences founded upon comparison of two constituencies (Electoral Districts) located in problem areas of both NW and SE Poland, by reference to the results for the Polish Sejm (Lower House) recorded at the last four elections (of 2011, 2015, 2019 and 2023). The results in these case studies were contrasted with nationwide political preferences, as well as results in a District considered one of Poland’s most-developed socioeconomically. A common thesis in the literature as to the populist preferences of problem-area residents gained tentative acceptance. The study was carried out within the framework of a research project entitled “Social and political consequences of spatial inequality: a case study of Central and Eastern Europe”, which has involved scientific teams from Poland, the Czech Republic and Germany.

The results from the case studies (focusing on the Electoral Districts of Koszalin (in NW Poland) and Chełm (SE)) were contrasted with nationwide political orientations and results from one of the most-elite (and thus implicitly least-populist) localities in Poland, i.e. Poznań. The comparisons made were able to confirm the thesis regarding the more-populist voting preferences of problem-area residents. However, on the Polish political scene, populism cannot necessarily be said to represent a specific ideology on the left-right axis, rather showing a potential to attract voters whose preferences have developed either in local conservative or more-progressive milieus. More ideologically expressive parties, on both the right and the left, obtained comparable and higher results in problem areas than nationwide in both types of community. On the other hand, mainstream parties aware of the potential behind populist factions, are adjusting their electoral programmes to compete for the votes of the “discontented” communities in “left-behind” areas.

Keywords: spatial inequalities, geography of discontent, voting preferences, problem areas, populism

Jerzy Bański [jbanski@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN; Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Instytut Geografii i Nauk o Środowisku
Mariusz Kowalski [mar.kow@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN
Michał Konopski [konopski@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN

Citation

APA: Bański, J., Kowalski, M., & Konopski, M. (2023). Nierówności przestrzenne a geografia niezadowolenia. Przykład preferencji wyborczych na obszarach problemowych w Polsce. Przegląd Geograficzny, 95(4), 421-446. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2023.4.4
MLA: Bański, Jerzy, et al. "Nierówności przestrzenne a geografia niezadowolenia. Przykład preferencji wyborczych na obszarach problemowych w Polsce". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 95, no. 4, 2023, pp. 421-446. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2023.4.4
Chicago: Bański, Jerzy, Kowalski, Mariusz, and Konopski, Michał. "Nierówności przestrzenne a geografia niezadowolenia. Przykład preferencji wyborczych na obszarach problemowych w Polsce". Przegląd Geograficzny 95, no. 4 (2023): 421-446. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2023.4.4
Harvard: Bański, J., Kowalski, M., & Konopski, M. 2023. "Nierówności przestrzenne a geografia niezadowolenia. Przykład preferencji wyborczych na obszarach problemowych w Polsce". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 421-446. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2023.4.4

Abstract

Small towns have specific social, economic and cultural features that distinguish them from medium-sized and large urban centres on the one hand, and rural areas on the other. They are a significant component in the settlement structures of regions that determine their polycentricity or monocentricity. At present it is possible to observe a rise in the level of functional diversity characterising small towns i.a. as a result of the ongoing economic diversification of rural areas. In part this also reflects small centres taking on certain urban functions that had previously been the preserve of large cities, or at least urban centres of medium size.

A reconnaissance of the tasks small towns discharge on a local or regional scale typically entails analysis of dominant economic sectors, or – more broadly – the role different socioeconomic spheres play in the given centre and its immediate surroundings. It is to this kind of subject matter that the work described here has been devoted, with the basic aim being to discuss and assess different classifications and research approaches to small towns that take their social and economic functions into account, as well as relations with surrounding areas. However, the very concept of the small town poses certain problems, not least because definitions generally simplify down to the criterion of population size. Depending on the country, the size criterion differs and is generally in the range 5000‑25,000 inhabitants.

The subject literature typically includes three types of approach to the classification of small towns: 1) the structural, 2) the location-related, and 3) the mixed. Each differs from the others in terms of the criteria defined, and the functions served by the minor urban centres taken account of. The structural approach allows for the grouping of towns from the point of view of the social, cultural and economic functions they discharge. Typically, structural classifications tend to single out the leading economic sector represented in the given town, allowing each to be analysed individually. This approach may be either static or dynamic, with the first case entailing reference to a given time at which categories identified offer information on socioeconomic structure. In contrast, a dynamic approach sees the degree of variability of such structures analysed, with this making it possible to indicate categories of town discernible in line with identified directions and rates of development.

The location-related approach draws on the idea of there being a continuum between the centre and the periphery, with significance therefore attached to the location of a given small urban centre vis-à-vis large centres undergoing development to the greatest extent. In very general terms, this approach allows a distinction to be drawn between satellite towns located in the zone of impact of large agglomerations and metropolises, towns that are traditional foci of the settlement network, and centres in isolated locations out on the peripheries. Location is rarely the sole element used to differentiate between small urban centres; and it is present regularly as just one among a number of criteria by which a classification or typology can be arrived at. We are then dealing with a so-called mixed approach. A mixed classification making simultaneous use of the different approaches to research brings the most information to bear in regard to categories of urban locality, but their results may therefore prove hard to interpret, given the more-complex research procedure and number of possible classes, categories or types.

Bearing in mind the approaches to classification, it is possible to propose a synthetic method for classifying small towns that takes account of economic structure, location, and the relationship between the towns and their surroundings. In the case of economic structure, the small centres may be divided into two basic groups – those featuring a multi-branch structure, and those that are specialised economically. A second element to the classification reflects the locations of urban centres. Two basic types can be identified – the small town within the range of impact of a large agglomeration, or else the town outside such areas – which is to say located peripherally. The third component of the classification arises out of small towns’ relations with their surroundings – as 1) local centres or 2) supra-local centres. In consequence, it is possible to indicate 8 types of small town.

Keywords: małe miasto, struktura funkcjonalne, klasyfikacja, typologia, rozwój lokalny

Jerzy Bański [jbanski@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN; Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Instytut Geografii i Nauk o Środowisku

Citation

APA: Bański, J. (2022). Rozważania na temat klasyfikacji małych miast – przegląd podejść badawczych i próba klasyfikacji wielokryterialnej. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.2.2
MLA: Bański, Jerzy. "Rozważania na temat klasyfikacji małych miast – przegląd podejść badawczych i próba klasyfikacji wielokryterialnej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 2, 2022, pp. 199-218. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.2.2
Chicago: Bański, Jerzy. "Rozważania na temat klasyfikacji małych miast – przegląd podejść badawczych i próba klasyfikacji wielokryterialnej". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 2 (2022): 199-218. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.2.2
Harvard: Bański, J. 2022. "Rozważania na temat klasyfikacji małych miast – przegląd podejść badawczych i próba klasyfikacji wielokryterialnej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 199-218. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.2.2

Abstract

Celem opracowania jest określenie zmian relacji między przyrostem naturalnym a saldem migracji w małych miastach na początku XXI w. oraz ocena wpływu tych cech na współczesne procesy starzenia się ludności. Badaniami objęto 670 miast, które w 2017 r. liczyły do 20 tys. mieszkańców. Zidentyfikowano osiem kategorii miast różniących się wielkością i kierunkiem ruchu naturalnego i migracyjnego, w których wskazano zmiany tych cech w latach 2008/2010‑2015/2017. Tempo starzenia się ludności w małych miastach określono za pomocą wskaźnika bazującego na punktowych różnicach pomiędzy udziałami ludności młodej i starej. Analizy dotyczyły czterech grup miast: z odmładzającą się strukturą demograficzną (1), z powolnym (2), przeciętnym (3) i z wysokim (4) tempem starzenia się społeczeństwa. Wyniki badań potwierdziły, że proces starzenia się ludności zachodził intensywnie niemal we wszystkich małych miastach w Polsce. Głównym czynnikiem kształtującym potencjał ludnościowy na początku XXI w. był ubytek migracyjny. Nie stwierdzono silnych zależności między przyrostem naturalnym a tempem starzenia się ludności.

Keywords: małe miasta, starzenie się ludności, ruch naturalny, migracje, Polska

Jerzy Bański [jbanski@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN; Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Instytut Geografii i Nauk o Środowisku
Wioletta Kamińska [wioletta.kaminska@ujk.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Instytut Geografii i Nauk o Środowisku
Mirosław Mularczyk [miroslaw.mularczyk@ujk.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Instytut Geografii i Nauk o Środowisku

Citation

APA: Bański, J., Kamińska, W., & Mularczyk, M. (2021). Ruch naturalny i migracje a zjawisko starzenia się społeczeństwa w małych miastach w Polsce w okresie 2008‑2017. Przegląd Geograficzny, 93(4), 491-513. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2021.4.1
MLA: Bański, Jerzy, et al. "Ruch naturalny i migracje a zjawisko starzenia się społeczeństwa w małych miastach w Polsce w okresie 2008‑2017". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 93, no. 4, 2021, pp. 491-513. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2021.4.1
Chicago: Bański, Jerzy, Kamińska, Wioletta, and Mularczyk, Mirosław. "Ruch naturalny i migracje a zjawisko starzenia się społeczeństwa w małych miastach w Polsce w okresie 2008‑2017". Przegląd Geograficzny 93, no. 4 (2021): 491-513. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2021.4.1
Harvard: Bański, J., Kamińska, W., & Mularczyk, M. 2021. "Ruch naturalny i migracje a zjawisko starzenia się społeczeństwa w małych miastach w Polsce w okresie 2008‑2017". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 491-513. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2021.4.1